Colgate’s Distateful Toothpaste

The mission statement for Colgate is â€Å"Our three fundamental values – Caring, Global Teamwork and Continuous Improvement – are part of everything we do. † (â€Å"Colgate world of,† 2011). Colgate presents products in the line of household and personal care such as laundry detergents, health care products and Hill pet food. The case, Colgate's Distasteful Toothpaste, deals with ethical issues associated with Colgate’s repugnant toothpaste brand named Darkie. The term ethics refers to accepted principles of right and wrong that govern the conduct of a person, the members of a profession, or the action of an organization. Because it refers to accepted principles, these principles may change from country to country or from business to business. No two countries hold the same identical ethical values. Business ethics are the accepted principles of right and wrong governing the conduct or behavior of business people. According to the case at hand, the ethical issues arising are about the logo on the tooth paste â€Å"Darki† black man toothpaste. This is an ethical issue because the logo was very popular in the Asian market for years which meant that it was very well accepted and non-offensive in the market. But as soon as the word of such action was heard of in the US it was regarded as offensive and unacceptable. The argument was how in the world could this simple logo which had generated millions of dollars to the Colgate and Hawley and Hazel alliance be called offensive? The spokesperson from Hawley and Hazel pointed to the fact they had no problems because the market share was so high in Asia. It left a bad impression on the US consumers because culture was different. The trade mark or logo was singling out black people which were viewed as a form of racism by the US population. In the Asian community this was not a problem because there was not a large black population as compared to the US. In the US with the institution of slavery still fresh on the minds of the average American this ad did not sit well, so one can clearly see that in this case ethics had indeed been violated. Another case in point is that Colgate indicated that they had no plans of selling this product in the western world tells me that they were in this thing just for market share in the Asian market. And that they knew being a US company that it was expected of them not to be conducting that type business dealings with another country f the home country is not pleased with such an operation. Colgate did not care what the black or white Americans public thought or how they felt while promoting Darkie they had no problems, all they were looking at was the millions of dollars on the balance sheet. At the end of the day, there was no remorse or guilty feelings; it was just business as usua l for them. This type of action reflects total unethical behavior on the part of Colgate. In order for Colgate to enter the Asian market it had to first develop a plan of action or strategy. Strategic management is the process of determining the organization’s basic goals and objectives and setting out a plan of action to attain them. In this case Hawley and Hazel had dominated the Asian market for years with their Darkie product. The only chance Colgate saw of getting into this huge market without having to set up a production plant of its own was to go into a 50% partnership with Hawley and Hazel. The agreement of this deal was that Colgate was to have no managerial say in the decisions of the partnership. This was the strategy that Colgate took in order to gain access into the Asian market seeing that Darkie was so popular. All Colgate was focusing on was on market presence and money; it did not faze them that did not have a voice in the deal. That is why when thing took a nose dive they could not say a word and it took three years and tons of money to rectify the problems that they faced. In order for Colgate to handle the circumstance that arose, managerial privileges were the key. For Colgate the Asian market was the only driving force. If they had only kept their eyes on the true prize which are good reputation and customer loyalty and made sure that they had managerial rights it would have saved them many troubles. As a big company Colgate, should have made an attempt to enforce some kind of pressure on Hawley and Hazel to change the logo. Instead of just sitting back and saying we have no managerial power. With all that was going on with Colgate one would probably ask, why didn’t Colgate and Hawley and Hazel just change the advertising logo? The answer to this question comes in two parts. The first is the effects of brand name and the loyalty that is affiliated with that brand. A brand exhibits the special relationship and connection we forge with a product or service. Darkie had a brand name in the Asian market that the customers loved. The advertisement which portrayed a black man’s white teeth generated millions in sales. Once a company has a well established brand name, it is very difficult to change. Customers put their loyalty in brand names and if these names change for any reasons, customers might feel cheated and even abandon the brand. That is why it is very risky for any business or partnership venture to change advertising with out losing customers. Remember that advertising is the method by which the information about products is being circulated into the market place. The Darkie logo advertisement was the driving force behind the product and the customers had a special feeling towards it. Any drastic or even simple change might have created sway in their minds resulting in market loss, and no company wants to lose market share. This is why Colgate and Hawley and Hazel did nothing to change to the ad, and I think it was the possible reason why Colgate did not respond to the domestic complaints. In the end I think without a reasonable doubt that managerial rights played a huge role in this case. If Colgate had it I think it would have been able to handle the negative pressures better. Furthermore I think Colgate as the huge business that it is, was supposed to just take the bull by the horns and launch into the Asian market. Darkie might have been the dominate player in the Asian market but I think that Colgate had what it take to compete. I think also that if they had made the detailed analysis which they were known for and remained focus on the local cultural differences, eventually they would have became number one in the Asian market. Bibliography Colgate world of care. (2011). Retrieved from http://www.colgate.com/app/Colgate/US/Corp/LivingOurValues/CoreValues.cvsp

Cold War Case Essay

The Cold War was a contest between the USA and the Soviet Union. It led to the existence of thousands of nuclear weapons, two universal ideologies in conflict, and two different self-images, the United States championing a world made safe for democracy. Its opponent, the Soviet Union advocated world Communism. The United States prides itself on its heritage of freedom, a refuge for persecuted religious groups, a land of liberty that successfully rebelled against the imperial power of Britain in 1776. Its guiding principles were the protection of the individual’s life, liberty and pursuit of happiness and the establishment of a constitution that embodied the best political idea of modern times, a system of checks and balances so that the president, Congress or parliament and judiciary or Supreme Court shared power, checking each other’s work to guard against dictatorship. While the United States did not always live up to its ideals, nonetheless, on paper at least, it looked good compared to its Cold War rival, the Soviet Union. Led by a murderous dictator, Joseph Stalin (1928 to 1953), the Soviet government was brutal, outlawing all opposition, banned political parties opposed to the Communist Party, murdered millions and set up a vast prison camp system known as the Gulag. In the years 1937-38 alone, Stalin ordered the execution of one million citizens of the Soviet Union. In the fifty years of the Cold War, the United States only executed two of its own citizens, the husband and wife Rosenberg spy team. Even though the Rosenbergs should not have been executed because their crimes were tiny in the context of the Civil War, the difference between the United States and the Soviet Union in terms of political mass murder of its own citizens is obvious. Despite this fact, one third of the world went the Communist way and other countries were tempted by the promises of Communism. How could this be? In theory, Communism promised a more equal world and at its greatest extent in the 1970s, Communist governments ruled one third of the world’s people. These were mostly poor countries looking for a quick way to industrialise. These countries looked upon the United States as a champion of the rich and powerful, an exploitative superpower that exported its economic system of capitalism only because it suited its interests to do so. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the United States strides the world as the sole superpower. The United States maintains its grip on this unipolar world without having to make too much effort. The United States spends only about 5-6% of its economy (its gross national product) on defense. The Soviet Union spent somewhere between 20% and 33% of its economy to try to keep up with the United States during the Cold War. It couldn’t keep up the pace. The position of the United States has declined only slightly in the twentieth century. In 1928, its economy was four times the size of its nearest rival (France) and in 1950 its economy was three times the size of its nearest rival (the Soviet Union). It is not just a question of economic or military power. American films and popular music dominated the mass culture of the world from World War One to the present day. In 1994, the biggest-selling film in Austria, France, Germany, Argentina and Mexico was the The Lion King, an American cartoon. The Flinstones was the best-selling film in Poland and Turkey. Forrest Gump won Finland and Norway. It is important to remember that power is projected and wars can be won not just by military and economic means but also by winning what is now an international culture war. A reluctant empire? The United States expanded its frontier in North America throughout the eighteenth century and after victory over Spain in 1898 became a maritime power whose empire stretched as far west as the Philippines. Ever since the Monroe Doctrine of 1823, the United States has pledged itself to prevent the European powers from intervening in the western hemisphere, specifically Latin America. Following its victory over Spain in 1898, the Untied States arrived as a world power. For many Native Americans and African-American slaves, some of the rhetoric of freedom did not ring true. But America’s promise of freedom and opportunity attracted migrants from all over the world. They arrived in New York at the rate of a million a year in the early 1900s. As a result of Europe’s self-destruction in World War One (1914-18), the United States became the dominant economic and political power in the world. It would later describe itself as a reluctant empire, a democratic state whose aim was to spread its ideals over the world but not to control in the way that European empires had done in the past. But what would it do with this power? Britain and France, weakened by the loss of Russia through revolution, were able to overcome Germany only with America’s help. Wilson believed that the values of the United States were in fact universal values of peace and democracy. In 1918 Woodrow Wilson, the American president published his Fourteen Points which called for a democratic peace based on the rights of self determination of all nations and the setting up of an international body, the League of Nations, to solve conflicts. But the world was changing. In Russia in 1917 Lenin and his Communist Party had come to power. Even worse for Wilson, his ideas were rejected in his own country, the United States. Wilson was pleased that the Treaty of Versailles that ended World War One established a League of Nations, but then found that the United States would not join. The League of Nations was rejected by the Senate, the upper house of the US Congress. Instead the Untied States tried to secure its future through the Washington Conference of 1921-22 which agreed that the US Navy should be of equal strength to the largest navy in the world, the British. In the 1920s and 30s, American foreign policy was dominated by isolationism, a refusal to intervene in Europe even when fasicsts, nazis and communists were on the march against American-style democracy in Europe. Those who support American power in the world today still worry that if the rest of the world criticises the United States too much it will retreat into its shell again and leave Europe and Australia at the mercy of a new (presumably Asian) religious fascim. Despite or because of its spectacular economic growth, American capitalism hit a major snag in the Great Depression that began in 1929 and economic problems increased the mood of isolationism in the US public, that is a mood of cutting the United States off from the world’s troubles. The president to take the US out of the Depression was Franklin D. Roosevelt, who introduced his New Deal. It was Roosevelt who would take the USA into the Second World War but only after Japan attacked Pearl Harbour in 1941, putting an end to the argument for isolation. The USA suffered more than three hundred thousand deaths in World War Two, mostly soldiers. But as in World War One this was a relatively small price to pay for what was a huge victory. The Soviet Union now under Joseph Stalin lost 27-30 million people, the majority of which were civilians. At the end of world War Two, the United States had a new and powerful weapon, the atomic bomb that it had to used to force japan to surrender in 1945. Under president Truman from 1945-52, the United States staked out a new role as the world’s policeman whose task it was to protect the democratic and free ‘West’ from the tyranny of Stalin’s Communism in the Soviet Union. The United States would win the Cold War, in large part because of its continuing economic success. On the eve of its collapse in 1990, the GNP of the Soviet Union was approximately one third of that of the USA, even though the United States and the Soviet Union had almost identical population sizes. The secret to America’s success? Unlike the Soviet Union, which experimented with a new and untried economic model of a state-rune economy, the Untied States had a proven economic model of capitalism. It had its faults such as inequality and crises of unemployment but encouraged innovation and efficiency in a way that the Soviet system did not.

Television Viewing Habits of Youngsters in India

INTRODUCTION: The latter part of the 20th century is known as the â€Å"Electronic age’’. It is estimated that 97%of the homes have atleast one television set. Children who come from homes without television are likely to view programs in schools, at friends house and in stores. Almost every youngster is exposed to television. Television has had a tremendous impact on the lives of the youngsters as it provides them with entertainment, information as and companionship. One of our television actors has said ‘that shows for youngsters are limited because there are not many takers for these programs . nd family oriented soaps are getting more TRPs. He says that he himself being a youngster prefers to watch shows like friends, music based reality shows, films, etc. and not family oriented soaps. When youngsters watch television with their parents their choice always differs. Because youngsters prefer to watch channels like Mtv, Channel V and more of reality and entert ainment show. While parents usually watch daily soaps and news, which most of the youngsters do not prefer to watch. There is hardly anything left for the youngsters to watch today because nowadays many daily soaps have been increasing. But there are a couple of channels catering to young audiences between the age group of 18-25 years. SURVEY ANALYSIS: The survey which was conducted to find out the television viewing habits among the youth gave us a lot of information as to what exactly the youngsters prefer to watch on television. And what changes they would like to have on television in future. Mostly all the youngsters watch reality shows. Like roadies stunt mania Khatro Ke Khiladi, Indian idol, Big Boss, Dance Reality shows, etc. Many of them watch shows on Sab Tv like Tarak Mehta ka Oolta Cashma , Comedy circus ,etc. They say that these shows give them entertainment and refreshment from studies. Some of them also watch Star Movies, HBO , and other movie channels. A few of them watch discovery, travel and living ,cookery shows ,programmes on NDTV Goodtimes ,and different news channels which give them a lot of information about the outside world . A very few youngsters watch daily soaps. A large no of youngsters yet watch cartoon because it entertains them. And cartoons help them to forget their problems for a little while. Many of them want changes in television in the future; mostly all of them are against the daily soaps on Colours, star plus and Zee Tv. They say that such daily soaps have a bad impact on people. And it can really spoil the children if they watch this entire daily. They expect more of those programmes which give them information which is real and which can help them in their life. Unlike the daily soaps which are fake and they show things which can never happen in our daily lives. IMPACT OF TV VIEWING HABITS OF YOUNGSTERS ON BEHAVIOR NDTV and Aaj Tak: The youngsters watch different channels on television to get knowledge from all the different fields. But they watch more of reality based programmes ,on channels like mtv ,channelv, zoom, bindas, etc. The news channels are usually preferred by senior citizens. but even the youngsters watch news channels. The main news channels are Aaj Tak and NDTV. They watch news channels to be aware of the happenings in our and other countries. But t he very less youngsters watch news. * Cartoon Network: Some of them also watch cartoons. But mainly children watch it. But sometimes for refreshment or entertainment many youngsters prefer to watch cartoons. The most demanded cartoon which is watched by all the ages is Jom &Jerry. There are many cartoons which can have a bad effect on the youngsters as well as the children, which should be banned. * ESPN: Almost all the youngsters like sports. And many of them only watch sports channel. The most demanded sports channel is ESPN. T his channel shows all the different types of sports. Many of the youths have a lot of interest in different sports. There are many other sports channels like neo sport, D. D sports, etc. * MTV and UTV Bindaas: Mtv and Bindas are the channels which are demanded by all the youngsters. These channels show programs which are highly demanded by today’s youth. These channels show reality shows, reality dance shows. singing shows, MTV shows the most demanded program ROADIES and SPLITSVILLA. These shows give entertainment that’s why mostly all the youths watch it. They also show different types of music and songs. The other channels which are demanded by the youths are Channel V, VH1, ZOOM, B4U, etc. Colors and Star Plus: Star Plus and Colors are the channels which show all the daily soaps, which is mostly watched by the middle aged people. The youth does not prefer to watch such channels which do not give them any entertainment. But there are some youngsters who watch these daily soaps. But most of them find these channels and these programs boring. * Doordarshan: D. D (doordarshan) is one of the oldest channels. None of the youths watch this channel or the programs in it. It is only preferred by the old people. * SAB TV: Sab TV is a channel which is demanded by all the age groups. It mainly contains programs which are entertaining unlike the daily soaps. They have all comedy serials which is preferred by everyone. Even large no of youths watch this channel. CONCLUSION: Thus we can conclude that the overall survey has helped us to know what exactly the young generation prefers to watch on television. And also the changes they expect in the near future. It has also helped us to know their views about different shows on television. This survey has really helped us to know the television viewing habits among the youngsters.

ANALYSIS OF CASE STUDIES OF ORGANIZATIONS Study

ANALYSIS OF STUDIES OF ORGANIZATIONS - Case Study Example The purpose of this paper is to examine the case studies of North Cumbria Primary Care Trust, London Borough of Redbridge, Wigan Metropolitan Borough Council and Chorley Borough Council, in which changes in the organizational culture were implemented. According to Cumbria NHS (2006) the former North Cumbria Primary Care Trusts have been replaced by Cumbria Primary Care Trust (PCT). This is a major organization for health, serving a population of nearly five lakh people. The organization is responsible for providing primary and community health services, and for commissioning a full range of hospital sercvices for local people. As with all NHS Trusts, the Cumbria Primary Care Trust is required to conduct a self-assessment related to its compliance with national Core Standards for Health. The results reflect a significant improvement in compliance levels, as compared to the previous year. The newly initiated project Closer to Home provides a unique opportunity for the people in North Cumbria to get high quality health care support as close to their own homes as possible, by working together with the NHS. For specialist care, faster access to first-class services is provided through hospitals (NHS Cumbria, 2008). The Redbridge Council of the London Borough of Redbridge has a Cabinet consisting of ten cabinet members required to carry out various duties under portfolios such as adult social services, community safety, budget and performance, housing and health, planning and regeneration and others. The five main responsibilities of the Cabinet are in the areas of budget and policy framework, promotion of the economic, social or environmental well-being of the region, leading the search for best value with the help of Scrutiny Committees, towards continuous improvement in the delivery of services, to exercise all the powers and duties of the Council, and to implement the requirements of Social Inclusion and Equal Opportunities in the delivery of services (Redbridge Council, 2008). Wigan Metropolitan Borough Council The Wigan Metropolitan Borough Council has twelve departments, with its Social Services Department employing 2500 staff appointed at more than one hundred locations in the region. The council is a unitary authority. The policy of Wigan Council is decided upon after debates held by elected councillors who sit on the full council, and the executive cabinet, with the assistance of committees and the guidance of policy panels (Wigan Council, 2008).The various issues that the Council covers include health, affordable housing, asylum seekers, police resourcing, school meals, teenage pregnancy, youth substance misuse, and several others. Select committees undertake a series of reviews of work done on the above issues and submit a final report to the Overview and Scrutiny Committee (Wigan Council, 2008). Chorley Borough Council This is a district authority that provides many public services for residents, businesses and visitors. In the local government, Chorley is regarded as a "two-tier" area, that is where district or borough councils work together with Lancashire County Council, to provide services on

Does Kant Adequatly Address the Problems Evident in the Controversy Essay

Does Kant Adequatly Address the Problems Evident in the Controversy between Empiricism and Rationalism - Essay Example According to Kant, the difference (dispute) that emerges between rationalism and empiricism is the level in which we are dependent on sense experience in order for us to gain and acquire knowledge. Rationalists claim that, very independent we gain knowledge and ideas (Kenny 45-46). This independent way of gaining concepts as it is own sense experience. Empiricists claim on the other side that sense experience is the final source of all our knowledge and ideals. When empiricists say that we are only able to access appearances, they are not saying that we only have access to illusory representations. To some level denying some confidence in their explanations, in this case, they ought to have been clear on this matter. Nonetheless, for Kant, appearances can, and in fact do, provide us with the ground for knowledge on facts and ideas (Kenny 48). To him the mind is the source of experience and knowledge, Descartes (1988). This is the concept, according to Kant, the concept of pure of cat egories. This is particularly clear in the sense that the mind makes contributions to experiences (Descartes 123). The mind plays a significant role and imposes on experience certain categories that make knowledge possible. In this case when Kant says that we cannot know the thing in itself he does not only mean that reality is inaccessible but also that we cannot experience anything outside in the way human mind operates Ann (1970). And from this explanation it is not a wrong concept, â€Å"but it justifies how human beings acquire knowledge† (Anne 90). Now, we have a look science and advancements in knowledge, it is evident that we have knowledge; Kant would never have denied it. Rationalist, in real sense have developed the argument in two ways. They say that there are circumstances when the content embodied in knowledge outstrips the information that can be provided in the real life experience. Also, they have build in some way, that reason in some form provides informati on and knowledge to the world. Empiricists, in this case provide some additional information of knowledge thought about the world (Kenny 50). Empiricists provide a sum up of lines and levels of thought. In that case they establish on accounts of how learning and experience provides on the information that rationalist provide, which according to Kant we have so far. According to Kant Empiricists will in most cases opt for skepticism as a lope to rationalism, Ann (1970). The say that if then experience cannot provide concepts or knowledge the rationalist cite, they then in that case do not have. In that case according to Kant, â€Å"empiricists attack the rationalists on accounts of how reason is a source of concepts and knowledge†. According to Kant, rationalist focus on what they call necessary truth. By this they articulate that some things are necessary true. Kant points that the simplest form of truth is the self-evident truth. In that regard, Kant says, that you even do n ot have to think. He illustrates that for instance as a simple calculation; one plus one, the answer is two Descartes (1988). This to him you do not have through the world to necessarily count this in order to prove it. Kant says that this is something you ought to believe that one plus one, the answer is two (Descartes 124). One of the criticisms that empiricists would set-forward is that, one plus one is two, is a mere trivial. It is tautological, suggesting it is true, certain, but not because it is not self

Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 42

Business - Essay Example The inventory at hand by this quarter is 86,400 fans that are calculated as 126% of the 2006 first quarter production levels. Due to the application of this cushion by Riordan, a viable production plan will be easily maintained without minor adjustments on the plan of 2005. Riordan requires the master production schedule (MPS) to help in the determination of the parts that will be needed weekly to meet its quarterly projected needs. The fact that this company uses a make-to-stock system makes it able to easily satisfy its customer demands without any delays in production. In case the inventory level drop to a given level, theres an automated system with a fixed order quantity method that I used to order parts. Whenever the capacity remains unremarkable, and theres a high reliability on the Riordans suppliers so that there are no significant delays in delivery, a flexible time fence is used (Soares & Vieira, 2009). At the Riordans Chinese facility, for a fan production, the material requirement plan (MRP) is usually based on the master production schedule (MPS). The MPS is used for the finished product that is the fans, and it also predicates the MRP. It is important that a well-reviewed production schedule is based on the inputs from every department so as to balance conflicting objectives, maintain inventory levels low and use resources efficiently. Soares, M., & Vieira, G. (2009). A new multi-objective optimization method for master production scheduling based on genetic algorithm. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology,

Explore Theatre In Education And Consider It's Role Within Primary Dissertation

Explore Theatre In Education And Consider It's Role Within Primary Schools - Dissertation Example In fact, all of the research survey respondents revealed that they strongly consider theatre in education as an important strategy in terms of enhancing the learning experience of Key Stage 1 and 2 students. Although majority with 51 out of 89 or 57.30% of the research survey respondents believe that the benefit of using this teaching and learning technique outweighs the economic consequences of incorporating this strategy in the National Curriculum, some of the research survey respondents are not supporting the idea that the National Curriculum should make it compulsory for each of the state school to expose Key Stage 1 and 2 to Theatre in Education programmes because of financial issues. Table of Contents Executive Summary †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 2 Table of Contents †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢ € ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 3 I. Introduction †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 5 a. Purpose of this Study ................................................. 6 b. Research Objective(s) ................................................ 6 c. Research Questions .................................................. 7 d. Rationale for Choosing the Research Topic .............. 8 e. Report Plan ............................................................... 9 e.1 Introduction ................................................... ... History and Developments of Theatre in Education †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 12 b. Advantages and Disadvantages of Theatre in Education . 14 b.1 Advantages of Theatre in Education †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 15 b.2 Disadvantages of Theatre in Education †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 18 b.2.1 Internal and External Conflicts between the Local Primary Schools and the Government with Regards to Funding †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 18 b.2.2 Not all Primary Schools were Availing the Services of Theatre Companies †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 19 b. Views of the National Curriculums with Regards to Integrating Theatre Exposure in the Curriculum of Primary School Students †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 20 c. Existing Companies that Provides Theatre in Education Services for Primary Students in UK ..†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 21 d.1 Aesop Touring Theatre Company †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 22 d.2 Johnny Ball Production †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã ¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 23 d.3 Kinetic Theatre Company †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 23 II. Research Methodology †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 25 a. Primary Research Method ............................................... 25 a.1 Target Population and Sample Size ............. 27 a.2 Site of the Research Study ........................... 28 a.3 Evaluation Method ........................................ 29 b. Secondary Research Method ........................................... 29 c. Ethical Considerations Applied when Conducting the Actual Research Study ..................................................... 29 III. Research Findings and Discussion †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 31 IV. Conclusion and Recommendations †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦... 35 Appendix I – National Curriculum for Primary Students †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 37 Appendix II – List of Satisfied Primary Schools

Assignment 11Chapter10 Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

11Chapter10 - Assignment Example Routine reports are supposed to be primed and submitted on issues required by the organization for the purpose of helping the organization management to take actions in the issues that are related to daily affairs of the business. The main aim of routine report is to make the management aware of the happenings within the organization, progress where there might be a deviation, and what kind of resolutions made in conjunction with solving the problem. There are few problems associated with routine reporting; one is that data collected and submitted within the organization is neither complete nor accurate for the purpose of tracking outcomes or process performance across the entire organization. Secondly, systematic evaluation of data may be hit with challenges as a result of inconsistencies (Meredith & Mantel, 2012). The main purpose of earned value measures the entire organization performance by use of an aggregate performance measure which is the earned value. The earned value of performed work for any task in progress is obtained by multiplying the estimated percent physical completion of task for each task by the planned cost for those particular tasks. The result should be the amount that may have been spent on the activity thus far; this can then be paralleled with the actual amount that has been spent (Meredith & Mantel, 2012). Having a summarized estimate of the percent completion of any project without keen study of every of its work and tasks units is not sensible in a

Art Versus Design Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Art Versus Design - Assignment Example Art’s depends on the viewer’s understanding and interpretation. Introduction The distinction amid design and art since their emergence in the artistic world to date has lacked clear demarcation line to numerous people. The two words seem to imply one thing whilst their definitions and implications differ variedly, besides sharing a single visual transmittance. Principally, art encompasses talent or inborn competence that differentiates one with the majority. This emanates from the ease with which one achieves certain aesthetic with minimal input. Design is a skill where one has to take formal training to have the capability to transmit the necessary information adequately. 1. Pop Art genre entails utilization of diverse pictures or images, which their exemplification tries to bring out the exact implication regarding what the picture holds (Fichner-Rathus, 2011). The profound diversity is that, this movement ignores keenness utilization of colors or other ordinary artis tic aspects to emphasize on required sensations (Comiskey, 2010). The drawn image of two hearts oozing with blood at the center tells the bitterness of emotion disconnection amid two lovers. Normally broken hearts should depict both hearts having two broken pieces especially the centre. Contrary, light green color replaces that phenomenon and a sharp, pointed hoe-like object pierces through and gives each side equal emotional pain (Raczka, 2009). The picture is similar to Pop Art due to its application of colors, where instead of utilizing red color extensively, it only chooses to apply a diverse one. According to Pop Art, any image in this genre does not exactly depict the real artist’s feeling, because he utilizes diverse non-representational shades with the absence of any restrictions (Raczka, 2009). This is evident from the drawn picture, where from keen scrutiny the core message emanates more from the outline of the image than the color. In addition, instead of the heart possess two pieces according to its title; it is intact, hence bringing someway unrealistic of any emotional disconnection (Comiskey, 2010). The shifting of color to the extreme sides and maintaining uneven distribution exemplifies emotional disconnection plus self-centered love by each partner. This confirms application of representational form to transmit varied sensations to the viewer. 2. Pop Art according to Andy Warhol, principally utilizes fresh colors, which in the viewer’s eyes will tend to emerge clearly and transmit the necessary information. Mainly, the fresh colors are non-representational; where in comparing with the nature tend to differ radically (Raczka, 2009). Because the artist does not utilize them to transmit own feelings, but concentrate on global perception regarding a certain object. This range from global icons or celebrities and materialistic gain esteemed by diverse society strata; chiefly based on tastes or preferences (Comiskey, 2010). Pop Art co mparing to other forms that existed prior its emergence in late 1950s; it defies keenness of â€Å"Abstract Expressionism†. Critics argue that, Pop Art's concentration is about global materialistic gains and lacks the necessary validity in expressing diverse aspects, which real artwork should depict. Pop Art its concentration was to impart the consumer with diverse aspects via advertisements and even equating icons with ordinary

How Does the Legacy of Colonialism Contribute to Some of the Economic Essay

How Does the Legacy of Colonialism Contribute to Some of the Economic Issues Facing Caribbean Countries Today - Essay Example Colonialism can be defined as â€Å"the domination of people another country† (Osterhammel & Frisch, 1997, p15). This involves suppressing the inferior culture. These Caribbean countries include Jamaica, Haiti, Cuba, Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico among others. Caribbean countries have common problems, which include financial stress and lack of sufficient investment; as a result, they face crisis in the credit markets. Nevertheless, colonialism impact on the Caribbean countries is felt up to date. Cuba and Puerto Rico gained independence in 1901 whilst Jamaica and Trinidad gained their independence in 1962 (History of the Caribbean 2012). Colonial governments were mostly undemocratic, and emphasized on divide and rule, which weakened the local power institutions. This paper will discuss the legacy of colonialism in relation to some of the economic issues facing the Caribbean countries. Legacy of colonialism and its contribution to some of the economic issues facing Caribb ean countries today The Caribbean countries struggled, but were full of courage for many years to attain their freedom and democracy as well. These countries have been a target to many developed countries due to their natural resources. However, the Caribbean countries have, over the years, tried to improve their economy to no avail; they have also tried to engage in clothes production, processing of food, and manufacturing of sugar, all of which have ended up in failure. The effects of colonialism have been felt on the Caribbean economy, which have contributed to its weakness. Though the Caribbean countries have attained their independence, some colonial policies hinder the Caribbean economy from excelling, posing as a ground for exploitation. According to The Michael Manley foundation (2006), colonizers of the Caribbean countries benefited greatly from controlling these countries; for instance, slave trade impacted positively on the industrialization of Britain, and as a result, e merging as the wealthiest nation. The colonized countries did advanced partially, as all the profits extracted from their resources benefited the mother countries of the colonizers. In addition, the Caribbean countries were not in a position to produce what they required, but they produced what the colonizers needed (The Michael Manley foundation, 2006). Today, the developed nations continue to benefit from the natural resources of the Caribbean countries with insignificant returns. For instance, Trinidad produces oil while Jamaica produces coffee, bananas, and sugar, all of which are exported to the developed countries. The developed nations use these raw materials to the benefit of their countries, and export the finished goods to the Caribbean countries; as a result, they make huge profits, while the Caribbean countries receive fewer returns. Colonialism encouraged the exportation of agricultural goods; as a result, the Caribbean countries have continued to lay more emphasis on t he exportation of such goods rather than investing in their manufacturing industries by expanding them. If the Caribbean countries would expand on their manufacturing industries, they would gain more profits through exporting finished goods, rather than raw goods, and as a result, boosting their economy. Importing more and exporting less is the trend of the Caribbean countries, this trend began in the colonialism era, where these colonized nations imported goods from the colonizing

Unit Assessment 3 professionalism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Unit Assessment 3 professionalism - Essay Example These interactions create relationships. Each state in the US has its own laws concerning discrimination. For any company, it is important to maintain a workplace that is free from any type of discrimination. Workplace harassment and discrimination may reduce productivity and lowers the employees’ morale. It is, therefore, very important for both management and the staff to work together to reduce this vice. To reduce workplace discrimination and harassment in the workplace, employees can ask the management to put in a formal complaints process just in case there is not one. Employees should not let things go out of hand and should seek assistance from their supervisor or the human resource department if they witness a case of workplace discrimination or harassment. In addition, employees gets hired into an organization they should go through the policies laid down so as not to participate in any acts that may seem like harassment or discrimination. Employees should always report any forms of harassment or discrimination through the proper channels so that employers can deal with the cases and reduce cases of lawsuits and low productivity. According to DuPont (1998), everyone in a n organization should always be professional. For the most, part we notice different thing about people. According to Nelson (2004), one main aspect that we notice about others is their age. Some people may form prejudicial opinions based on this. Most employers are prejudiced when it comes to the older generation. An employee may feel as though they are being discriminated against due to their age when a promotion that they feel they were meant to get is given to a younger employee who does not have the necessary skills to take up that position. The employee may have the necessary skills and more than enough work, experience and still be passed off during an offer for a

Mistakes Promote Progression Essay Example for Free

Mistakes Promote Progression Essay Mistakes made are lessons learned, not the other way around. According to Scientific American’s numerous experiments, they came to the conclusion that when mistakes are made, one better remembers the correct answer or decision. Alexander Pope suggests that â€Å"a man should never be ashamed to own he has been A man should never be ashamed to own he has been in the wrong, which is but saying, in other words, that he is wiser today than he was yesterday.† In life, one strives for the correct answer or the correct choice, but how can this be identified if one does not even know of the possible mistakes? To get a correct answer on a test almost has the same value as guessing correctly. Without making a mistake, there is no proof of sole knowledge. Mistakes aid in recovery, as well as progression. Furthermore, Henry L. Roediger and Bridgid Finn conduct several experiments on students in regards to study habits and pretesting effects. In one of their experiments, students were given 8 seconds to study different word pairs, such as ‘star-night,’ and ‘factory-plant’. When they were asked to pair the word ‘star’, approximately 5% of the students answered correctly. However, when they were given the same amount of time to read over the pairs once more, all of them correctly matched the pairs. This proves that making mistakes show students what the wrong answers are in order to answer correctly. In addition, when studying flashcards for a test of some sort, one should memorize the answers to each side of the card. However, when studying the first time around it is often difficult to have the right response to every single card. After going through each card a few times, the answers become more fluent in your mind and it is later easier to remember the responses  for the test. When one does not answer the question correctly while studying, the wrong answer sticks in the mind. As a result, the next time the same card comes around, one knows the wrong answer and is more likely to answer correctly. Making mistakes promotes success and progression. Making the wrong choices give the individual experience; perhaps even wisdom. Mistakes are key to making right decisions, proving that, â€Å"in other words, he is wiser today than he was yesterday.

Comparison of Teacher Education Programmes in Pakistan UK

Comparison of Teacher Education Programmes in Pakistan UK Comparative Analysis of Teacher Education Programmes in Pakistan UK CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Background of the Study The overall development status of every country depends upon the standard of education prevalent across that country. It is an era of knowledge based economies, and countries failing in education find it hard to catch up with the developed world. In other words a countrys economic and cultural future as well as its scientific and technological growth owe to the academic standards being maintained by the teachers in its educational institutions. Thus teachers contributions are well acknowledged as builders of the nation and molders of personalities. In fact the key player of every educational system is the teacher, who is considered the backbone of the entire system all over the world, and a pivot around which the whole education system revolves. Teacher is the major implementer of all educational reforms at the grass root level. Teaching without doubt is considered one of the very noble professions. It offers constant intellectual challenges, acknowledgement, respect in the society a nd above all the opportunity to mould the personalities of a big majority of youth. This centrality qualifies teachers to be the crucial position holders in creating impact on all aspects of students personalities. They are the teachers who bring about positive behavioural changes in students by grooming and developing their personalities. That is why it is necessary that they should be adequately equipped with skills and abilities that would enable them to play an effective role in human development both from national and global perspectives. The Indian Education Commission 1964-66, as observed by Sheikh M.A (1998)[1] had ranked the quality and competence of the teachers as the most important factor determining the quality of education significantly contributing to the national development. Nothing is more important than securing a sufficient supply of high quality recruits to the teaching profession, providing them with the best possible professional preparation and creating satisfactory conditions of work in which they can be fully effective.† However, this central position, demands great care and attention in the education and training of teachers, who develop and enable students meet effectively the challenges of present and future. Ascertaining the effectiveness of these trainings asks for the analysis of teacher education programs in the social context of every country socio economic, cultural and historic factors substantially influence its nature and value. Concept of Teacher Education Teacher education is a discipline and sub sector of education with its distinct pre service and in service forms. It equips prospective and in service teachers with information, knowledge and pedagogical skills to help reform their attitudes and behaviour to the profession of education. The key objective is to facilitate the transfer of knowledge (cognitive, affective and psychomotor) to students and to build their character and personalities. In other words teacher education refers to the policies and procedures designed to equip teachers with the knowledge, attitudes, behaviours and skills they require to perform their tasks effectively in the school and classroom. (Wikipedia, 09) [2] According to Sheikh M.A (1998), teacher education encompasses acquiring all that knowledge, skills and abilities which are relevant to the life of a â€Å"teacher as a teacher† It reshapes the attitudes, remodels the habits, and develops the personalities of teachers. Need for Teacher Education Teachers general education and professional training both require utmost care and attention, as whatever is acquired by them is transferred to their students with high multiple effects. The present has witnessed and is still experiencing a rapidly but positively changing scenario of processes and procedures of teacher training. New innovative methods are continuously being added to the already practiced traditional pedagogical techniques. Acquainting with these developments to the point of mastery is needed for the promotion and maintenance of good teaching learning standards. Good quality teacher education about these key elements paves the way of the development of the education system in the long run. Teachers are the layers of the foundations of future citizens, hence need to be educated with futuristic perspective, so that they can develop the personalities of their students, not only as per present requirements but also for the years to come, accommodating the new trends from the global outlook. This is very important as teacher is one of the key agents of change in all communities and a service provider as per needs of the future. Changes are taking place not only at national but also at international level. With every passing day distances are shrinking and communities are coming closer to each other affecting each others practices of life. Purpose of Teacher Education The purpose of teacher education primarily is to equip prospective teachers not only with suitable aptitudes for teaching but also with appropriate skills and abilities required to make them effective and efficient professionals. Through different theoretical and practical activities, they are helped to understand not only the philosophical, psychological, and sociological basis of teaching, but also the relationship of education with the society and its values through teaching and learning processes. The process of formal teacher education can help the prospective teachers minimize the troubles and save the students from the wastages of hit and trial. Appropriately rendered teacher education, provides ample opportunities to would be teachers to understand the nature of teaching; to envisage responsibilities of a teacher; to discover that to be a teacher is much more than learning by heart the philosophies and theories of learning; and to comprehend the practical implications of the pedagogical strategies. It is learnt that the profession of teaching is in fact facilitating the acquisition and retention of knowledge, values, skills and right attitudes for successful life that can initiate and promote positive changes in the society. Keeping this in view teacher education, through teacher-preparatory years focuses on the development of abilities and skills that would not only make them capable teachers but will enable them to discharge duties effectively, take initiatives, motivate students and facilitate learning. With the belief that practice makes one perfect, students during teacher education phase are given the opportunity to teach or instruct and receive constant guidance and encouragement during practical delivery, in order to strengthen good habits and to overcome the pedagogical weaknesses. Phases of Teacher Education Farrant, J. S. (1990)[3], observed that since the dawn of the twenty first century teacher education in developed countries remained divided into three phases: 1) Initial Teacher Education 2) Induction 3) Continuing Teacher Education 1) Initial teacher training / education This education pertains to the training that is undertaken before formally starting the teaching profession. It is a pre-service course done before entering the classroom as a fully responsible teacher. It is usually provided in education colleges and education departments of universities where the student teachers are introduced to the knowledge and skills needed to be professional teachers. The students are formally taught the important components of this profession including aims of education, history of education, perspectives of education, modern approaches to learning, assessment and evaluation of learning and basics of curriculum development, educational psychology, philosophy and pedagogy. It also provides first hand experience of the practical aspects of the teaching profession. It usually takes a year or so and culminates into a certificate or a degree. 2) Induction This informal phase begins when a student teacher changes from being a part time, visiting student teacher to a full time adequately responsible professional. Basically induction refers to the process of providing on the job guidance and support to the teachers during the first few months of teaching or the first year of the professional career. In countries like UK, during induction the teacher is on probation, and receives guidance and supervision formally by the teacher-tutor, and informally from all other colleagues head teacher. The work load during this phase of education is reduced in order to provide time and opportunity for guidance, reflection and grooming. This is a transitional phase from being a student to being a full time teacher. 3) Teachers continuous professional development It is an in-service process for professional refinement of practicing teachers. It is a life long process in which efforts are made to improve and polish up the potentials of the teachers. It includes professional trainings like workshops, short courses and seminars. This is usually formally arranged by good schools or can be self directed through reading of professional books, discussions with colleagues, benefiting from on line courses, or attending training workshops, conferences, and symposiums. With the passage of time, all institutions have started to value in service training of teachers more and more; and are regularly arranging training programs of different durations for their teachers. These trainings are sometimes general in nature for the improvement of the overall teaching methodologies, and sometimes focused on improving specific subject-teaching skills, enabling teachers master innovative concepts recently incorporated in the existing curriculum. Such in service trainings are usually taken up in anticipation for the expected promotions. Usefulness of Comparing Teacher Education Systems Sodhi (1993)[4] documented, â€Å"Comparative education is a popular educational venture and is considered very useful in countries like USA, UK, Russia and even India. It is considered so, as education has been recognized an investment for development of human resources, which is in fact the development of human capital formation. All people engaged in the field of education have much to learn from the policies and educational practices of other lands. Apparently the educational system of a country grows out of the historical background, economic and social conditions, geographical features and political systems and no country is in a position to totally adopt the educational patterns of another country as such. But lessons can be learnt, and successful practices can be adopted to meet the needs from the angle it looks upon them.† With advancement in technology and with communication explosion, the geographical distances are shrinking and people are coming closer to each other. The similarities caused by science and technology are overpowering the differences resulting from cultural diversities. The fact suggested by increasing similarities is that different nations of the worldwhich looks like a global village now, can learn a lot from each others experiences and progress to save time, energy and resources required for the ‘try and learn activities. The knowledge about the successes and failures of other systems can be very awakening and beneficial in comprehending ones own educational problems. The backwardness or advancement of ones own system can be ascertained only through analytical comparison, particularly with those of the economically and educationally advanced countries. In spite of increased investment in education sector, Pakistan has not yet achieved its target of UPE (Universal Primary Education) set in 1960 that was to be achieved by 1980. Analysis of the educational status of Pakistan reveals that a reasonable progress has been made by it since independence. At that time not even a million students were studying in schools, whereas now more than twelve million children are in schools. But at the same time due to a very high population growth rate, more than twelve million school age children are out of school, doing jobs or just doing nothing. The recent comparisons with the educational situation in China and India show that Pakistan is still far behind than the more thickly populated neighbouring countries, where China with literacy rate of 90% and India with 65% are substantially ahead of Pakistan. The situation of full enrollment which is a far cry is further aggravated by an alarmingly high rate of dropouts. Female literacy rate is abysmall y low, and education of females and rural population at all levels is much underrepresented. As the population is growing at a geometrical rate, the need for more schools and for more and better teachers has risen substantially. With increased focus on the quantitative expansion necessitated by substantial raises in population, the qualitative dimension of teacher education in Pakistan has not received adequate attention, resulting in passing out of scores of teachers from different teacher education institutions with inadequate grip over the content and teaching methodologies. This demands special focus to improve the status of teacher education, by learning through analysis and comparison with education systems that are progressing and delivering well in other countries of the world. As the education system has grown over years, the number of teachers has also shown increases, but it is still far from being adequate, particularly for subjects like science and mathematics. Along with this teacher education programs in Peshawar based teacher education institutions like other similar institutions of Pakistan have some critical deficiencies, which are hampering their effectiveness. Some of those were summarized by Asia and the Pacific Program of Educational Innovation for Development (APIED)(1987)[5], and are reproduced hereunder: i) Short duration of teacher training programs ii) Minimal interaction of trainee teachers at schools iii) Outmoded methods of teaching and evaluation iv) Shortage of audio visual aids and other educational equipment in teacher training institutions. v) Deficiency of supplementary reading material/professional magazines/ research journals vi) Lack of co ordination among training institutions. vii) Absence of incentives for prospective teachers These and similar other deficiencies ask for keen analysis of the local system and for its comparison with better performing systems. The best way to analytically compare any two teacher education systems, as highlighted by Galambos C. Eva, (1986) [6] would be to find out: 1) How the two systems strengthen subject area preparation? 2) How long and adequate is the duration of pre service training of teachers? 3) How theory and practice address better inclusion of the practice of teaching in learning to teach effectively and efficiently? 4) What level of general education would be necessary for all prospective teachers? and 5) What major and minor subjects would be preferred as most supportive for the profession of teaching? In order to survive successfully in the global community, and to bring the indigenous teacher education at the international level it would seem pertinent to critically analyze the local prevailing teacher education programs and to compare them with one of the educationally advanced countries, like that of the United Kingdom, which had laid the foundation of the existing education system in the sub-continent during the colonial rule. Education System in Pakistan Education in Pakistan comes in the domain of the responsibilities of the provinces. However the Federal government is responsible for over viewing Pakistans entire system of education, and is assisted by the provincal ministries and departments of education in all the provinces. The Federal Ministry of Education (MOE) deals with policy-making, curriculum development, accreditation and coordination as an advisory authority, along with the direct administration of the educational institutions situated in and around the capital. Education up to Secondary level is provided by public and private schools, and by Islamic madrasahs, (the faith schools). Education provided at the public/government schools is free of cost, but in the private sector institutions educational expenses are borne by the parents for the purpose of good quality of education. Provincial governments overview and administer all the Universities which are financed by the Federal government through the Higher Education Commission (HEC). Both public and private universities and other higher education institutions are overviewed by HEC for the planning, development and granting of charters. The academic progress of these institutions is coordinated, reviewed and evaluated by the HEC. Primary Education Primary education begins at five years of age and is completed in five years. The medium of instruction at the government schools is either Urdu or the regional language and is English at the private educational institutions. The curriculum revolves around Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, General science, Social studies, Islamic studies, and Physical training. Secondary Education Secondary Education comprises of three stages: a three-year stage of middle level education; other two-year of secondary education; and a further two-year of higher secondary education at intermediate and degree colleges. At the Middle level, (Grades VI to VIII), at ages 11-13, compulsory subjects of Urdu, English, Mathematics, Social Studies and Islamic studies are studied and students are examined on terminal and annual basis. In Grades IX and X at ages 14 and 15 studies are divided into streams of Science and Humanities, and externally examined by the Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education to award Secondary School Certificate on successful completion of ten years of education. However, Intermediate or Higher Secondary Education stream involves studies of Grade XI and XII either in Science or Humanities at the ages of 16 and 17, with external examination and certification by the Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education. Many students in the private sector opt for the examination of (GCE) General Certificate of Education. Madrassahs / Madaris: (Religious Schools) The madaris, operating simultaneously with regular schools are fewer in number as compared to the public and private schools. These provide Islamic education through Urdu and Arabic as languages of Instruction. The key features of the curriculum are the study of the Holy Quran and Hadith (teachings of the prophet Muhammad p.b.u.h). Enrollment and boarding lodging facilities are mostly free of charge, although in some cases they receive grants from the federal government. The primary level institutions called maktabs, are usually attachments of mosques, and provide basic Islamic education focusing on the reading and learning the holy Quran by heart. Secondary school madrasahs deal with the higher level of Islamic education. For better standards of education and in order to integrate the Islamic and formal education systems, the formal schools curriculum of English, mathematics, general science and computer Science are now studied compulsorily at all madaris. Madrasahs are largely self-governing and independent. The official regulatory and certificates/Sanads awarding bodies include ‘Jamea-tus Safiya ‘Wafaq-ul-Madaris, and ‘Tanzeem-ul-Madaris. Different madrasah levels correspond to the formal system, like ‘Tajweed wa Qiraat Ibtidaya is equal to primary schooling, ‘Mutawassita is at par with Middle level, ‘Saniya Aama is equated with Secondary School Certificate, and ‘Saniya Khasa to the Higher Secondary School Certificate, after which the students are eligible to continue higher education at Madrasah or at Universities of the formal sector. Vocational / Technical Secondary Education Nearly all vocational schools run both certificate and diploma programmes. The duration of certificate courses is one year and that of diplomas is two years, in various trades at the secondary level (Grades IX and X) leading to the Secondary School Certificate in technical education; qualifying students to continue their education at Technical Institutes of higher education. Higher Education At the time of partition in 1947 the country had only one University, the Punjab University. Now as of 2008-2009 Pakistan, according to Higher Education Commission of Pakistan (HEC), there are 124 recognized Universities in the country, 68 of these universities are public sector universities and 56 are from the private sector. The guidelines for charter and operations of Universities are issued by the HEC. For standardization, all degree-granting higher education programmes are assessed by HEC. With English as medium of Instruction the Higher Secondary School Certificate, a pass in the entry test, are the essential pre requisites for admission to the study at the university. University Higher Education Stage I: A Bachelors Degree is awarded after two years of formal education and with honours after three years of fulltime study in humanities, sciences or commerce. Four years of formal education is required for Bachelors degrees in engineering, pharmacy computer science, whereas five years are needed for Bachelors in medicine. Stage II: Two years of study after the bachelors degree and one year after the honors bachelors degree leads to the acquisition of Masters Degree Stage III: A minimum of four to five years of study beyond masters degree leads to the doctoral degree. But the duration of study is five to seven years for programmes like the Doctor of Literature (DLitt), Doctor of Science (DSc) and Doctor of Law (LLD). Higher Education (Non University) Polytechnics, technical and commercial institutes and colleges provide non-university higher education comprising programmes of two or three years leading to certificates and diplomas in commercial and technical fields, awarded by Provincial Boards of Technical Education. Teacher Education Programs at Pakistan Primary School Teachers Teacher training at the post secondary level takes place in Regional Institutes of Teacher Education (RITE), and at the Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad for a one-year program known as the Primary Teaching Certificate. In addition, prospective teachers are also prepared at the private sector institutions affiliated or enlisted with universities of public or private sector. Secondary School Teachers Government training institutes of education and different affiliated colleges in private sector train teachers for the secondary school level. They are awarded a Certificate of Teaching (CT) for one year study after passing the examination of Higher Secondary School Certificate. Teacher Education at Universities The prospective teachers aspiring to teach at the higher secondary school level study for one year at the Education Colleges for the Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) degree, after two-year bachelors of Arts or Science (BA/BSc) education. Teachers possessing B.Ed degree are eligible to teach at the Secondary school level. Masters of Education (M.Ed) is a one year university education after completion of B.Ed. Policy Priorities for Teacher Education All the National Education Policies of Pakistan have accorded great importance to teacher education. The 1959 Commission on National Education stressed upon the necessity of adequate pre service teacher education gave recommendations about functions of teachers in a university and about selection and promotion of teachers. The Education Policy 1972-80 estimated the teacher producing capacity of then existing 12 teacher training colleges and 55 teacher education institutions in Pakistan, to be four thousand which was much less than the estimated demand of three hundred thousand additionally required teachers. It recommended the introduction of Education subject at Secondary, Higher Secondary and Degree level and students qualifying these subjects were suggested to be taken as primary, middle and high level teachers. Relaxation of training requirements for women teachers in special cases was recommended in order to increase the number of women teachers. An academy for teachers and educ ational Administrators training was recommended to be set up. The outdated nature of the teacher training courses was admitted, and their revision was recommended, along with this preparation of model standard textbooks for teacher trainees were advised. The National Education Policy 1979 had vividly valued the significant role of teachers in the effective implementation of the education policies. It was asserted that teacher is the pivot of the entire educational system. In order to promote pre-service teacher education, all the Primary Teacher Training Institutions were planned to be upgraded to Colleges of Elementary Education. An Academy of Higher Education was approved to be established to provide in-service and pre-service training to the College and University teachers. Another Academy for Educational Planning and Management was also established to provide opportunities of training to administrators and supervisors working at different levels of the educational system. This National Education Policy envisaged that every teacher would be expected to undergo one in-service course during five-year cycle of his/her service. A system of National Awards for best teachers was planned to be instituted. Every year ten teachers of vario us levels and categories were planned to receive these awards from the President of Pakistan at national level. Similar awards were planned to be given to selected teachers by the respective provincial governors. The Sixth five Year Plan (1983-88), earmarked sixty million rupees for the teacher education programs to establish additional primary and secondary teacher training institutes and to enhance the training capacity of the existing primary and secondary teacher training institutions, and departments of Education at the Universities. This plan was unique in the sense that it allocated special funds categorically for the teacher education programs. Prior to this the trend of blanket approval was in practice and the badly needed requisite improvement in the standard of teachers could not be facilitated. The incremental allocation, as given in the following table reflected the increased importance accorded to teacher education. Table: 1.1 The Sixth Five Year Plans (1983-1988) Allocations for Teacher Education Year Recurring Expenditure Developmental Expenditure (in million rupees) 1983-84 12 16 1984-85 14 20 1985-86 18 27 1986-87 20 32 1987-88 24 38 Total 88 133 The Seventh Five-Year Plan (1988-93) identified a number of shortcomings in the teacher training programs, which included the irrelevancy of curriculum for PTC and CT; the inadequacy of the training duration, of in service training, and lack of good career prospects due to which good students were not attracted to the profession of teaching. It was proposed to improve the efficiency of teachers by gradually raising the minimum qualification, revitalizing the teacher training programmes, continuous in-service education and providing better career proposals to teachers. The Ninth Five-Year Plan focused upon the strengthening of one hundred and twenty then available teacher training institutes. The high priority attached to the promotion and facilitation of teacher education as envisaged in the above mentioned policies and plans spoke of the importance accorded to teacher education by all the governments of Pakistan. Entry Qualification The requisite entry qualifications into the teaching profession at different levels are as follows: a) Primary Level (I-V) : Matriculation + one year teaching certificate (PTC) b) Middle Level (VI-VIII) : Intermediate + one year teaching certificate (CT) and, c) Secondary Level (IX-X) : B.A/B.Sc + one year Bachelor of Edu. degree course/B.Ed Non Formal Teacher Education Allama Iqbal Open University (AIOU) is offering non formal teacher training courses for both male and female students living in the far away areas of the country. These programs are substantially contributing to the provision of trained teachers. United Kingdoms System of Education In Britain compulsory schooling takes place between the ages of five and sixteen. The over riding objectives of the governments education policies are to raise standards at all levels of ability, increase parental choice, make further and higher education more widely accessible and more responsive to the needs of the economy, and to achieve the best possible returns from the resources invested in the education service. (Britain 1990) [7] Parents are legally bound to ensure that their children aged five to sixteen regularly receive efficient full time education. Most students receive free education financed from public funds, and a small proportion attends private schools independent of public financial support. Pupils follow a common curriculum leading to the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) and Vocational Certificate of Secondary Education (VCSE). Students are allowed to select a number of GCSEs, VCSEs as per their personal preferences and aptitudes. Quite a few sch ools cater for the educational needs of the students for additional two years till they sit for the Advanced Level of General Certificate of Education. (GCE A Levels) Primary and Secondary Schools Ninety percent of boys and girls are taught together in most primary schools. Most independent/private fee-charging schools are mixed at the primary level and single-gender at the secondary level. These schools are registered with, and inspected by the government and governed by an independent board. No fees are charged in government schools, which are governed by the Local Education Authorities (LEA). There is no statutory requirement to provide education for the under-fives, but nursery education is well established now. Compulsory education begins at five at infant schools and at seven they go to junior/primary schools. The average age of passing out from primary school and entry into secondary school is eleven years. Schools are organized in a number of ways including secondary schools with age range, from 11 to 18; middle schools whose students move on to senior comprehensive schools at the age of 12 to 16. Tertiary colleges offer a full range of vocational and academic courses for students over 16. Examinations At the completion of the secondary education at UK, at the age of sixteen, secondary school students appear for the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE). This examination in order to raise the standard of performance has replaced General Certificate of Education (GCE), Ordinary Level (O Level), and the Certificate of Secondary Education (CSE) since 1988. GCSE examination is taken after five years of Secondary Education and evaluated at a seven point scale of grades, A to G. The GCSE Advanced level (A Level) examination is taken after two years of further study. Its successful completion qualifies the student for induction into universities. Educational Standards Her Majestys inspectors report to ministers on the quality of education provided at all schools colleges and universities. They also advise the Local Education Authorities (LEA) and the government, and publish the reports. LEAs also employ inspectors or advisers to gu Comparison of Teacher Education Programmes in Pakistan UK Comparison of Teacher Education Programmes in Pakistan UK Comparative Analysis of Teacher Education Programmes in Pakistan UK CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Background of the Study The overall development status of every country depends upon the standard of education prevalent across that country. It is an era of knowledge based economies, and countries failing in education find it hard to catch up with the developed world. In other words a countrys economic and cultural future as well as its scientific and technological growth owe to the academic standards being maintained by the teachers in its educational institutions. Thus teachers contributions are well acknowledged as builders of the nation and molders of personalities. In fact the key player of every educational system is the teacher, who is considered the backbone of the entire system all over the world, and a pivot around which the whole education system revolves. Teacher is the major implementer of all educational reforms at the grass root level. Teaching without doubt is considered one of the very noble professions. It offers constant intellectual challenges, acknowledgement, respect in the society a nd above all the opportunity to mould the personalities of a big majority of youth. This centrality qualifies teachers to be the crucial position holders in creating impact on all aspects of students personalities. They are the teachers who bring about positive behavioural changes in students by grooming and developing their personalities. That is why it is necessary that they should be adequately equipped with skills and abilities that would enable them to play an effective role in human development both from national and global perspectives. The Indian Education Commission 1964-66, as observed by Sheikh M.A (1998)[1] had ranked the quality and competence of the teachers as the most important factor determining the quality of education significantly contributing to the national development. Nothing is more important than securing a sufficient supply of high quality recruits to the teaching profession, providing them with the best possible professional preparation and creating satisfactory conditions of work in which they can be fully effective.† However, this central position, demands great care and attention in the education and training of teachers, who develop and enable students meet effectively the challenges of present and future. Ascertaining the effectiveness of these trainings asks for the analysis of teacher education programs in the social context of every country socio economic, cultural and historic factors substantially influence its nature and value. Concept of Teacher Education Teacher education is a discipline and sub sector of education with its distinct pre service and in service forms. It equips prospective and in service teachers with information, knowledge and pedagogical skills to help reform their attitudes and behaviour to the profession of education. The key objective is to facilitate the transfer of knowledge (cognitive, affective and psychomotor) to students and to build their character and personalities. In other words teacher education refers to the policies and procedures designed to equip teachers with the knowledge, attitudes, behaviours and skills they require to perform their tasks effectively in the school and classroom. (Wikipedia, 09) [2] According to Sheikh M.A (1998), teacher education encompasses acquiring all that knowledge, skills and abilities which are relevant to the life of a â€Å"teacher as a teacher† It reshapes the attitudes, remodels the habits, and develops the personalities of teachers. Need for Teacher Education Teachers general education and professional training both require utmost care and attention, as whatever is acquired by them is transferred to their students with high multiple effects. The present has witnessed and is still experiencing a rapidly but positively changing scenario of processes and procedures of teacher training. New innovative methods are continuously being added to the already practiced traditional pedagogical techniques. Acquainting with these developments to the point of mastery is needed for the promotion and maintenance of good teaching learning standards. Good quality teacher education about these key elements paves the way of the development of the education system in the long run. Teachers are the layers of the foundations of future citizens, hence need to be educated with futuristic perspective, so that they can develop the personalities of their students, not only as per present requirements but also for the years to come, accommodating the new trends from the global outlook. This is very important as teacher is one of the key agents of change in all communities and a service provider as per needs of the future. Changes are taking place not only at national but also at international level. With every passing day distances are shrinking and communities are coming closer to each other affecting each others practices of life. Purpose of Teacher Education The purpose of teacher education primarily is to equip prospective teachers not only with suitable aptitudes for teaching but also with appropriate skills and abilities required to make them effective and efficient professionals. Through different theoretical and practical activities, they are helped to understand not only the philosophical, psychological, and sociological basis of teaching, but also the relationship of education with the society and its values through teaching and learning processes. The process of formal teacher education can help the prospective teachers minimize the troubles and save the students from the wastages of hit and trial. Appropriately rendered teacher education, provides ample opportunities to would be teachers to understand the nature of teaching; to envisage responsibilities of a teacher; to discover that to be a teacher is much more than learning by heart the philosophies and theories of learning; and to comprehend the practical implications of the pedagogical strategies. It is learnt that the profession of teaching is in fact facilitating the acquisition and retention of knowledge, values, skills and right attitudes for successful life that can initiate and promote positive changes in the society. Keeping this in view teacher education, through teacher-preparatory years focuses on the development of abilities and skills that would not only make them capable teachers but will enable them to discharge duties effectively, take initiatives, motivate students and facilitate learning. With the belief that practice makes one perfect, students during teacher education phase are given the opportunity to teach or instruct and receive constant guidance and encouragement during practical delivery, in order to strengthen good habits and to overcome the pedagogical weaknesses. Phases of Teacher Education Farrant, J. S. (1990)[3], observed that since the dawn of the twenty first century teacher education in developed countries remained divided into three phases: 1) Initial Teacher Education 2) Induction 3) Continuing Teacher Education 1) Initial teacher training / education This education pertains to the training that is undertaken before formally starting the teaching profession. It is a pre-service course done before entering the classroom as a fully responsible teacher. It is usually provided in education colleges and education departments of universities where the student teachers are introduced to the knowledge and skills needed to be professional teachers. The students are formally taught the important components of this profession including aims of education, history of education, perspectives of education, modern approaches to learning, assessment and evaluation of learning and basics of curriculum development, educational psychology, philosophy and pedagogy. It also provides first hand experience of the practical aspects of the teaching profession. It usually takes a year or so and culminates into a certificate or a degree. 2) Induction This informal phase begins when a student teacher changes from being a part time, visiting student teacher to a full time adequately responsible professional. Basically induction refers to the process of providing on the job guidance and support to the teachers during the first few months of teaching or the first year of the professional career. In countries like UK, during induction the teacher is on probation, and receives guidance and supervision formally by the teacher-tutor, and informally from all other colleagues head teacher. The work load during this phase of education is reduced in order to provide time and opportunity for guidance, reflection and grooming. This is a transitional phase from being a student to being a full time teacher. 3) Teachers continuous professional development It is an in-service process for professional refinement of practicing teachers. It is a life long process in which efforts are made to improve and polish up the potentials of the teachers. It includes professional trainings like workshops, short courses and seminars. This is usually formally arranged by good schools or can be self directed through reading of professional books, discussions with colleagues, benefiting from on line courses, or attending training workshops, conferences, and symposiums. With the passage of time, all institutions have started to value in service training of teachers more and more; and are regularly arranging training programs of different durations for their teachers. These trainings are sometimes general in nature for the improvement of the overall teaching methodologies, and sometimes focused on improving specific subject-teaching skills, enabling teachers master innovative concepts recently incorporated in the existing curriculum. Such in service trainings are usually taken up in anticipation for the expected promotions. Usefulness of Comparing Teacher Education Systems Sodhi (1993)[4] documented, â€Å"Comparative education is a popular educational venture and is considered very useful in countries like USA, UK, Russia and even India. It is considered so, as education has been recognized an investment for development of human resources, which is in fact the development of human capital formation. All people engaged in the field of education have much to learn from the policies and educational practices of other lands. Apparently the educational system of a country grows out of the historical background, economic and social conditions, geographical features and political systems and no country is in a position to totally adopt the educational patterns of another country as such. But lessons can be learnt, and successful practices can be adopted to meet the needs from the angle it looks upon them.† With advancement in technology and with communication explosion, the geographical distances are shrinking and people are coming closer to each other. The similarities caused by science and technology are overpowering the differences resulting from cultural diversities. The fact suggested by increasing similarities is that different nations of the worldwhich looks like a global village now, can learn a lot from each others experiences and progress to save time, energy and resources required for the ‘try and learn activities. The knowledge about the successes and failures of other systems can be very awakening and beneficial in comprehending ones own educational problems. The backwardness or advancement of ones own system can be ascertained only through analytical comparison, particularly with those of the economically and educationally advanced countries. In spite of increased investment in education sector, Pakistan has not yet achieved its target of UPE (Universal Primary Education) set in 1960 that was to be achieved by 1980. Analysis of the educational status of Pakistan reveals that a reasonable progress has been made by it since independence. At that time not even a million students were studying in schools, whereas now more than twelve million children are in schools. But at the same time due to a very high population growth rate, more than twelve million school age children are out of school, doing jobs or just doing nothing. The recent comparisons with the educational situation in China and India show that Pakistan is still far behind than the more thickly populated neighbouring countries, where China with literacy rate of 90% and India with 65% are substantially ahead of Pakistan. The situation of full enrollment which is a far cry is further aggravated by an alarmingly high rate of dropouts. Female literacy rate is abysmall y low, and education of females and rural population at all levels is much underrepresented. As the population is growing at a geometrical rate, the need for more schools and for more and better teachers has risen substantially. With increased focus on the quantitative expansion necessitated by substantial raises in population, the qualitative dimension of teacher education in Pakistan has not received adequate attention, resulting in passing out of scores of teachers from different teacher education institutions with inadequate grip over the content and teaching methodologies. This demands special focus to improve the status of teacher education, by learning through analysis and comparison with education systems that are progressing and delivering well in other countries of the world. As the education system has grown over years, the number of teachers has also shown increases, but it is still far from being adequate, particularly for subjects like science and mathematics. Along with this teacher education programs in Peshawar based teacher education institutions like other similar institutions of Pakistan have some critical deficiencies, which are hampering their effectiveness. Some of those were summarized by Asia and the Pacific Program of Educational Innovation for Development (APIED)(1987)[5], and are reproduced hereunder: i) Short duration of teacher training programs ii) Minimal interaction of trainee teachers at schools iii) Outmoded methods of teaching and evaluation iv) Shortage of audio visual aids and other educational equipment in teacher training institutions. v) Deficiency of supplementary reading material/professional magazines/ research journals vi) Lack of co ordination among training institutions. vii) Absence of incentives for prospective teachers These and similar other deficiencies ask for keen analysis of the local system and for its comparison with better performing systems. The best way to analytically compare any two teacher education systems, as highlighted by Galambos C. Eva, (1986) [6] would be to find out: 1) How the two systems strengthen subject area preparation? 2) How long and adequate is the duration of pre service training of teachers? 3) How theory and practice address better inclusion of the practice of teaching in learning to teach effectively and efficiently? 4) What level of general education would be necessary for all prospective teachers? and 5) What major and minor subjects would be preferred as most supportive for the profession of teaching? In order to survive successfully in the global community, and to bring the indigenous teacher education at the international level it would seem pertinent to critically analyze the local prevailing teacher education programs and to compare them with one of the educationally advanced countries, like that of the United Kingdom, which had laid the foundation of the existing education system in the sub-continent during the colonial rule. Education System in Pakistan Education in Pakistan comes in the domain of the responsibilities of the provinces. However the Federal government is responsible for over viewing Pakistans entire system of education, and is assisted by the provincal ministries and departments of education in all the provinces. The Federal Ministry of Education (MOE) deals with policy-making, curriculum development, accreditation and coordination as an advisory authority, along with the direct administration of the educational institutions situated in and around the capital. Education up to Secondary level is provided by public and private schools, and by Islamic madrasahs, (the faith schools). Education provided at the public/government schools is free of cost, but in the private sector institutions educational expenses are borne by the parents for the purpose of good quality of education. Provincial governments overview and administer all the Universities which are financed by the Federal government through the Higher Education Commission (HEC). Both public and private universities and other higher education institutions are overviewed by HEC for the planning, development and granting of charters. The academic progress of these institutions is coordinated, reviewed and evaluated by the HEC. Primary Education Primary education begins at five years of age and is completed in five years. The medium of instruction at the government schools is either Urdu or the regional language and is English at the private educational institutions. The curriculum revolves around Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, General science, Social studies, Islamic studies, and Physical training. Secondary Education Secondary Education comprises of three stages: a three-year stage of middle level education; other two-year of secondary education; and a further two-year of higher secondary education at intermediate and degree colleges. At the Middle level, (Grades VI to VIII), at ages 11-13, compulsory subjects of Urdu, English, Mathematics, Social Studies and Islamic studies are studied and students are examined on terminal and annual basis. In Grades IX and X at ages 14 and 15 studies are divided into streams of Science and Humanities, and externally examined by the Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education to award Secondary School Certificate on successful completion of ten years of education. However, Intermediate or Higher Secondary Education stream involves studies of Grade XI and XII either in Science or Humanities at the ages of 16 and 17, with external examination and certification by the Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education. Many students in the private sector opt for the examination of (GCE) General Certificate of Education. Madrassahs / Madaris: (Religious Schools) The madaris, operating simultaneously with regular schools are fewer in number as compared to the public and private schools. These provide Islamic education through Urdu and Arabic as languages of Instruction. The key features of the curriculum are the study of the Holy Quran and Hadith (teachings of the prophet Muhammad p.b.u.h). Enrollment and boarding lodging facilities are mostly free of charge, although in some cases they receive grants from the federal government. The primary level institutions called maktabs, are usually attachments of mosques, and provide basic Islamic education focusing on the reading and learning the holy Quran by heart. Secondary school madrasahs deal with the higher level of Islamic education. For better standards of education and in order to integrate the Islamic and formal education systems, the formal schools curriculum of English, mathematics, general science and computer Science are now studied compulsorily at all madaris. Madrasahs are largely self-governing and independent. The official regulatory and certificates/Sanads awarding bodies include ‘Jamea-tus Safiya ‘Wafaq-ul-Madaris, and ‘Tanzeem-ul-Madaris. Different madrasah levels correspond to the formal system, like ‘Tajweed wa Qiraat Ibtidaya is equal to primary schooling, ‘Mutawassita is at par with Middle level, ‘Saniya Aama is equated with Secondary School Certificate, and ‘Saniya Khasa to the Higher Secondary School Certificate, after which the students are eligible to continue higher education at Madrasah or at Universities of the formal sector. Vocational / Technical Secondary Education Nearly all vocational schools run both certificate and diploma programmes. The duration of certificate courses is one year and that of diplomas is two years, in various trades at the secondary level (Grades IX and X) leading to the Secondary School Certificate in technical education; qualifying students to continue their education at Technical Institutes of higher education. Higher Education At the time of partition in 1947 the country had only one University, the Punjab University. Now as of 2008-2009 Pakistan, according to Higher Education Commission of Pakistan (HEC), there are 124 recognized Universities in the country, 68 of these universities are public sector universities and 56 are from the private sector. The guidelines for charter and operations of Universities are issued by the HEC. For standardization, all degree-granting higher education programmes are assessed by HEC. With English as medium of Instruction the Higher Secondary School Certificate, a pass in the entry test, are the essential pre requisites for admission to the study at the university. University Higher Education Stage I: A Bachelors Degree is awarded after two years of formal education and with honours after three years of fulltime study in humanities, sciences or commerce. Four years of formal education is required for Bachelors degrees in engineering, pharmacy computer science, whereas five years are needed for Bachelors in medicine. Stage II: Two years of study after the bachelors degree and one year after the honors bachelors degree leads to the acquisition of Masters Degree Stage III: A minimum of four to five years of study beyond masters degree leads to the doctoral degree. But the duration of study is five to seven years for programmes like the Doctor of Literature (DLitt), Doctor of Science (DSc) and Doctor of Law (LLD). Higher Education (Non University) Polytechnics, technical and commercial institutes and colleges provide non-university higher education comprising programmes of two or three years leading to certificates and diplomas in commercial and technical fields, awarded by Provincial Boards of Technical Education. Teacher Education Programs at Pakistan Primary School Teachers Teacher training at the post secondary level takes place in Regional Institutes of Teacher Education (RITE), and at the Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad for a one-year program known as the Primary Teaching Certificate. In addition, prospective teachers are also prepared at the private sector institutions affiliated or enlisted with universities of public or private sector. Secondary School Teachers Government training institutes of education and different affiliated colleges in private sector train teachers for the secondary school level. They are awarded a Certificate of Teaching (CT) for one year study after passing the examination of Higher Secondary School Certificate. Teacher Education at Universities The prospective teachers aspiring to teach at the higher secondary school level study for one year at the Education Colleges for the Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) degree, after two-year bachelors of Arts or Science (BA/BSc) education. Teachers possessing B.Ed degree are eligible to teach at the Secondary school level. Masters of Education (M.Ed) is a one year university education after completion of B.Ed. Policy Priorities for Teacher Education All the National Education Policies of Pakistan have accorded great importance to teacher education. The 1959 Commission on National Education stressed upon the necessity of adequate pre service teacher education gave recommendations about functions of teachers in a university and about selection and promotion of teachers. The Education Policy 1972-80 estimated the teacher producing capacity of then existing 12 teacher training colleges and 55 teacher education institutions in Pakistan, to be four thousand which was much less than the estimated demand of three hundred thousand additionally required teachers. It recommended the introduction of Education subject at Secondary, Higher Secondary and Degree level and students qualifying these subjects were suggested to be taken as primary, middle and high level teachers. Relaxation of training requirements for women teachers in special cases was recommended in order to increase the number of women teachers. An academy for teachers and educ ational Administrators training was recommended to be set up. The outdated nature of the teacher training courses was admitted, and their revision was recommended, along with this preparation of model standard textbooks for teacher trainees were advised. The National Education Policy 1979 had vividly valued the significant role of teachers in the effective implementation of the education policies. It was asserted that teacher is the pivot of the entire educational system. In order to promote pre-service teacher education, all the Primary Teacher Training Institutions were planned to be upgraded to Colleges of Elementary Education. An Academy of Higher Education was approved to be established to provide in-service and pre-service training to the College and University teachers. Another Academy for Educational Planning and Management was also established to provide opportunities of training to administrators and supervisors working at different levels of the educational system. This National Education Policy envisaged that every teacher would be expected to undergo one in-service course during five-year cycle of his/her service. A system of National Awards for best teachers was planned to be instituted. Every year ten teachers of vario us levels and categories were planned to receive these awards from the President of Pakistan at national level. Similar awards were planned to be given to selected teachers by the respective provincial governors. The Sixth five Year Plan (1983-88), earmarked sixty million rupees for the teacher education programs to establish additional primary and secondary teacher training institutes and to enhance the training capacity of the existing primary and secondary teacher training institutions, and departments of Education at the Universities. This plan was unique in the sense that it allocated special funds categorically for the teacher education programs. Prior to this the trend of blanket approval was in practice and the badly needed requisite improvement in the standard of teachers could not be facilitated. The incremental allocation, as given in the following table reflected the increased importance accorded to teacher education. Table: 1.1 The Sixth Five Year Plans (1983-1988) Allocations for Teacher Education Year Recurring Expenditure Developmental Expenditure (in million rupees) 1983-84 12 16 1984-85 14 20 1985-86 18 27 1986-87 20 32 1987-88 24 38 Total 88 133 The Seventh Five-Year Plan (1988-93) identified a number of shortcomings in the teacher training programs, which included the irrelevancy of curriculum for PTC and CT; the inadequacy of the training duration, of in service training, and lack of good career prospects due to which good students were not attracted to the profession of teaching. It was proposed to improve the efficiency of teachers by gradually raising the minimum qualification, revitalizing the teacher training programmes, continuous in-service education and providing better career proposals to teachers. The Ninth Five-Year Plan focused upon the strengthening of one hundred and twenty then available teacher training institutes. The high priority attached to the promotion and facilitation of teacher education as envisaged in the above mentioned policies and plans spoke of the importance accorded to teacher education by all the governments of Pakistan. Entry Qualification The requisite entry qualifications into the teaching profession at different levels are as follows: a) Primary Level (I-V) : Matriculation + one year teaching certificate (PTC) b) Middle Level (VI-VIII) : Intermediate + one year teaching certificate (CT) and, c) Secondary Level (IX-X) : B.A/B.Sc + one year Bachelor of Edu. degree course/B.Ed Non Formal Teacher Education Allama Iqbal Open University (AIOU) is offering non formal teacher training courses for both male and female students living in the far away areas of the country. These programs are substantially contributing to the provision of trained teachers. United Kingdoms System of Education In Britain compulsory schooling takes place between the ages of five and sixteen. The over riding objectives of the governments education policies are to raise standards at all levels of ability, increase parental choice, make further and higher education more widely accessible and more responsive to the needs of the economy, and to achieve the best possible returns from the resources invested in the education service. (Britain 1990) [7] Parents are legally bound to ensure that their children aged five to sixteen regularly receive efficient full time education. Most students receive free education financed from public funds, and a small proportion attends private schools independent of public financial support. Pupils follow a common curriculum leading to the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) and Vocational Certificate of Secondary Education (VCSE). Students are allowed to select a number of GCSEs, VCSEs as per their personal preferences and aptitudes. Quite a few sch ools cater for the educational needs of the students for additional two years till they sit for the Advanced Level of General Certificate of Education. (GCE A Levels) Primary and Secondary Schools Ninety percent of boys and girls are taught together in most primary schools. Most independent/private fee-charging schools are mixed at the primary level and single-gender at the secondary level. These schools are registered with, and inspected by the government and governed by an independent board. No fees are charged in government schools, which are governed by the Local Education Authorities (LEA). There is no statutory requirement to provide education for the under-fives, but nursery education is well established now. Compulsory education begins at five at infant schools and at seven they go to junior/primary schools. The average age of passing out from primary school and entry into secondary school is eleven years. Schools are organized in a number of ways including secondary schools with age range, from 11 to 18; middle schools whose students move on to senior comprehensive schools at the age of 12 to 16. Tertiary colleges offer a full range of vocational and academic courses for students over 16. Examinations At the completion of the secondary education at UK, at the age of sixteen, secondary school students appear for the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE). This examination in order to raise the standard of performance has replaced General Certificate of Education (GCE), Ordinary Level (O Level), and the Certificate of Secondary Education (CSE) since 1988. GCSE examination is taken after five years of Secondary Education and evaluated at a seven point scale of grades, A to G. The GCSE Advanced level (A Level) examination is taken after two years of further study. Its successful completion qualifies the student for induction into universities. Educational Standards Her Majestys inspectors report to ministers on the quality of education provided at all schools colleges and universities. They also advise the Local Education Authorities (LEA) and the government, and publish the reports. LEAs also employ inspectors or advisers to gu